In Gerald Graff and Cathy Birkenstein’s They Say/ I Say, they say what most writing teachers would not touch with a ten foot pole. For Graff and Birkenstein, templates for writing are not all bad, especially to clarify good ideas that already exist. Similarly, in The Craft of Research by Wayne Booth, Gregory Colomb, and Joseph Williams, a template is presented which allows for creative expression while giving a beginning writer the tools to write a successful paper. Gordon Harvey’s “Elements of the Academic Essay,” similarly, presents certain essential parts of a well-written paper in the Western tradition.
Published in 1977 in Paris, Du plan à la dissertation by Paul Desalmand and Patrick Tort is a guide to writing any piece of formal writing, but especially tends towards academic writing. It is nearly a combination of the stylistic advice of They Say/I Say and the broad structural advice of “Elements of the Academic Essay.” In France, these rigid outlines for papers are a requirement. Although in the United States we tend to be more “free form” in essays, many papers can benefit from this understanding in order to refine commonly used techniques.
Those elements which are consistent between Graff & Birkenstein; Booth, Colomb, & Williams; Harvey; and Desalmand & Tort are what I outline here. Since the French form is overly prescriptive and the American method traditionally veers away from directive tutoring, this is a (happy) medium between the two.
This document should be used for writers who are struggling particularly with any element of writing a paper. It is a compilation of the things that are perhaps not intuitive about writing at a post-secondary level, but which are absolutely essential to writing good college papers. For tutoring, this could be a useful resource for people who have a structure close to one of the ones outlined below or someone who has used some of the concepts but not self-consciously.
The Necessities
a. Personal reaction : Generally, students tend to latch onto a fundamental question posed in the class when possible, using their memory instead of their reasoning ability. Naïve though they may be, in most cases, the academy prefers a sincere reaction to a mature yet false-sounding one. This is also called the motive, or that which makes the paper interesting to you as well as “generally interesting” (Harvey).
b. Paying attention to audience: Students should establish both their “stance” (in Harvey’s words) in relation to the subject and their relationship to the reader or community of readers. This may mean clarification of terms, explaining one’s assumptions, or use of pertinent jargon.
c. Using examples or evidence : An example is the statement of a fact which will support an affirmation. It is important to note the link between the fact and the affirmation that it will support. Using examples limits verbiage, generalities, and banalities.
d. Being clear and coherent : A good paper should resemble a mathematical proof more than a lyrical flood of words. This does not imply that style should be forsaken; however, strength of argumentation and coherence are the fundamental concerns.
i. Understanding your own writing does not suffice, others must be able to understand it as well. Do not overuse specific or difficult language for its own sake; use the simplest language possible to get to the heart of meaning.
ii. Look for simplicity in the construction of your sentences
e. Outline : Getting your ideas on paper is harder than coming up with them in the first place. In order to convey your ideas effectively to the reader, outline!
f. A problem : Regardless of whether you are agreeing with your sources or refuting them, you must establish a problem or previous point of view which is contested in your paper. In American papers, this is the thesis: the answer to the questions or problem is usually considered to be the most important part of the paper.
Introduction
Generally, an introduction should begin with the general and end with a thesis or the central problem. This is more of a guideline than an actual rule. It is also advisable to begin with a sentence to draw the appropriate reader in, for example: “Scholars have reached a consensus: the sagehen is the most fearsome animal ever to roam the earth.” Striking facts, quotes, and anecdotes are also good. Some general rules for writing an introduction are:
i. Contextualize background
ii. Introduce a problem
iii. Response to problem
Possible Forms of the Body
Separated into parts and paragraphs, where each part is a main point in the problem and each paragraph is one idea or one aspect of an idea.
The Dialectical Plan
i. Thesis
1. defense of a certain point of view on the question
2. often the predominant point of view (the most common analysis)
ii. Antithesis
1. Opposing arguments to the preceding argument which lead to a clear contradiction
2. Perhaps a less common but still valid point of view on the problem
iii. Synthesis: Establish some nuanced truth in between the two arguments or overcome the initial contradiction by bringing in additional information.
“Problem-Cause-Solution” Plan
This plan is self-explanatory. Introduce and define a problem, pinpoint its causes, and propose a solution.
The Inventory Plan
For a rare case when a paper does not present a solution to a problem. Example prompt: What are the pros and cons of running away from home to start a rock band? Use precise examples from your personal life.
i. Separate your argument into parts (in this case, two: pros and cons)
ii. Order your arguments within each part
The Comparative Plan
In which reflection is born of the comparison of different facts or concepts. There are two rules for this type of paper: (1) Each element of comparison constitutes a section or “part” of the paper (2) the opposition posed at the beginning of the paper should follow until the end of the piece.
i. First part : first element of comparison (one point of view on an issue, for example)
ii. Second part : second element of comparison (an opposing point of view)
iii. Third part : Meditation on the facts presented in the first two parts
Explication-Illustration or Formula/commentary Plan
i. Explanation of the formula (definition, for example: “Explain the use of the word it in Webster’s Dictionary and comment on its significance.”)
ii. Commentary on the formula
1. Expansion : use a wider scope to analyze the results of this definition
2. Proposed conclusion on the formula (does it work, is it problematic, how can it be changed?)
The Conclusion
A conclusion must be written in the spirit of synthesis and with logical rigor. Coming to the end of an argument, a conclusion must be concise and strong. If desired, it can situate the results or thesis a more general sense. Many good conclusions suggest further research or pose a further question derived from the paper’s conclusion or main idea: “More research should be done on why precisely the sagehen’s competitors, like the stag, are such failures of the animal kingdom.” This gives legitimacy to the paper in suggesting that it is a part of a larger body of work.
Works Cited
Desalmand, Paul & Tort, Patrick. Du plan Ă la dissertation. 1957.
Harvey, Gordon. “Elements of the Academic Essay.” © Harvard University
Booth, Colomb, and Williams. The Craft of Research.
Gerald Graff and Cathy Birkenstein’s They Say/ I Say.